Green Synthesis of TiO₂ Nanoparticles via Graphene Oxide-Doped Malabar Spinach Leaf Extract for Perovskite Solar Cells

Authors

Nofrijon Sofyan, Advanced Materials Research Center, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok 16424, Indonesia AND Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok 16424, IndonesiaFollow
Ichsan Pandu Wicaksono, Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok 16424, IndonesiaFollow
Fiona Angellinnov, Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok 16424, IndonesiaFollow
Aga Ridhova, Research Center for Metallurgy, National Research and Innovation Agency, Tangerang Selatan, Banten 15314, IndonesiaFollow
Akhmad Herman Yuwono, Advanced Materials Research Center, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok 16424, Indonesia AND Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok 16424, IndonesiaFollow
Donanta Dhaneswara, Advanced Materials Research Center, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok 16424, Indonesia AND Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok 16424, IndonesiaFollow

Abstract

This study investigates a green synthesis route for titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanoparticles (NPs) using Malabar spinach (Basella rubra) leaf extract, with graphene oxide (GO) as a dopant, for application as an electron transport layer in perovskite solar cells (PSCs). The synthesized TiO₂ NPs were characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), ultraviolet-visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (UV-Vis DRS), and field emission scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (FESEM/EDX). XRD results confirmed the presence of a pure anatase phase with a smaller crystallite size than that of commercial TiO₂, while EDX analysis verified the successful synthesis through elemental analysis. FESEM imaging revealed a mixture of rugged and uniformly distributed nanoparticles. Optical studies showed a reduced bandgap energy (3.0400 eV) compared to commercial TiO₂ (3.2000 eV), indicating improved light absorption potential. The integration of GO suggestively enhanced photovoltaic performance, with the highest power conversion efficiency (0.2467%) observed in the sample synthesized using distilled water, leaf extract, and GO—an order of magnitude higher than commercial TiO₂ (0.0259%). However, performance varied notably with different synthesis media, suggesting that solvent-specific interactions play a critical role in determining device efficiency. These findings demonstrate the viability of eco-friendly synthesis in developing functional nanomaterials and highlight the synergistic benefits of combining plant-based reductants and GO doping. The approach offers a promising pathway toward more sustainable and cost-effective PSC technologies; however, optimizing plant extract composition and nanoparticle morphology remains essential.

Keywords

Basella rubra, Graphene oxide, Green synthesis, Malabar spinach, Titanium dioxide nanoparticles

Article Type

Special Issue Article

First Page

16

Last Page

29

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

How to Cite this Article

Sofyan, Nofrijon; Wicaksono, Ichsan Pandu; Angellinnov, Fiona; Ridhova, Aga; Yuwono, Akhmad Herman; and Dhaneswara, Donanta (2026) "Green Synthesis of TiO₂ Nanoparticles via Graphene Oxide-Doped Malabar Spinach Leaf Extract for Perovskite Solar Cells," Baghdad Science Journal: Vol. 23: Iss. 1, Article 2.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21123/2411-7986.5135